So the gladiator, no matter how faint-hearted he has been throughout the fight, offers his throat to his opponent and directs the wavering blade to the vital spot. The enemy, besides their other warlike preparation, had made their battle-line to glitter with new and splendid arms. Under Caligula, participation by men and women of senatorial rank may have been encouraged, and sometimes enforced; Cassius Dio, 59.10, 13–14 and Tacitus, Some Roman writers interpret the earliest attempts to provide permanent venues as populist political graft, rightly blocked by the Senate as morally objectionable; too-frequent, excessively "luxurious", Historical European martial arts § Antiquity, Learn how and when to remove this template message, Inaugural games of the Flavian Amphitheatre, Rescript of Constantine quoted by David Potter, 'Constantine and the Gladiators', The Classical Quarterly, Vol.60, No.2 (December 2010),p597, David Potter, 'Constantine and the Gladiators', The Classical Quarterly, Vol.60, No.2 (December 2010),p602, "Gladiators: Heroes of the Roman Amphitheatre", "The Best Athletes in Ancient Rome were Vegetarian! The gladiator games lasted for nearly a thousand years, reaching their peak between the 1st century BC and the 2nd century AD. Two years later, following its defeat at the Battle of Arausio: ...weapons training was given to soldiers by P. Rutilius, consul with C. Mallis. Suetonius describes an exceptional munus by Nero, in which no-one was killed, "not even noxii (enemies of the state). [225], Eppia – a senator's wife – and her Sergius eloped to Egypt, where he deserted her. Handling. [70] In 66 AD, Nero had Ethiopian women, men and children fight at a munus to impress the King Tiridates I of Armenia. [40] Henceforth, the ceiling cost for a praetor's "economical" official munus employing a maximum 120 gladiators was to be 25,000 denarii; a "generous" imperial ludi might cost no less than 180,000 denarii. This is described as a "munus" (plural: munera), a commemorative duty owed the manes of a dead ancestor by his descendants. A career as a volunteer gladiator may have seemed an attractive option for some. Gladiator er en amerikansk film fra 2000 instrueret af Ridley Scott. [228], In this new Play, I attempted to follow the old custom of mine, of making a fresh trial; I brought it on again. To persuade the Senate, he expressed his distress on behalf of a Senator who could not find seating at a crowded games in Puteoli: In consequence of this the senate decreed that, whenever any public show was given anywhere, the first row of seats should be reserved for senators; and at Rome he would not allow the envoys of the free and allied nations to sit in the orchestra, since he was informed that even freedmen were sometimes appointed. Its replacement could have housed about 100 and included a very small cell, probably for lesser punishments and so low that standing was impossible. [75] In the same century, an epigraph praises one of Ostia's local elite as the first to "arm women" in the history of its games. The emperor Titus's dignified yet confident ease in his management of an amphitheatre crowd and its factions were taken as a measure of his enormous popularity and the rightness of his imperium. [95] There were also comedy fights; some may have been lethal. [182] Throughout Rome's history, some volunteers were prepared to risk loss of status or reputation by appearing in the arena, whether for payment, glory or, as in one recorded case, to revenge an affront to their personal honour. [57] A single late primary source, the Calendar of Furius Dionysius Philocalus for 354, shows how seldom gladiators featured among a multitude of official festivals. [74] In Halicarnassus, a 2nd-century AD relief depicts two female combatants named "Amazon" and "Achillia"; their match ended in a draw. [59] In the republican era, private citizens could own and train gladiators, or lease them from a lanista (owner of a gladiator training school). Its popularity led to its use in ever more lavish and costly games. 225 – 226, and footnotes. [36], Gladiatorial games, usually linked with beast shows, spread throughout the republic and beyond. [71] Romans seem to have found the idea of a female gladiator novel and entertaining, or downright absurd; Juvenal titillates his readers with a woman named "Mevia", hunting boars in the arena "with spear in hand and breasts exposed",[72] and Petronius mocks the pretensions of a rich, low-class citizen, whose munus includes a woman fighting from a cart or chariot. Early literary sources seldom agree on the origins of gladiators and the gladiator games. "[120] Not all editors chose to go with the crowd, and not all those condemned to death for putting on a poor show chose to submit: Once a band of five retiarii in tunics, matched against the same number of secutores, yielded without a struggle; but when their death was ordered, one of them caught up his trident and slew all the victors. [78][79], Caligula, Titus, Hadrian, Lucius Verus, Caracalla, Geta and Didius Julianus were all said to have performed in the arena, either in public or private, but risks to themselves were minimal. [117] By common custom, the spectators decided whether or not a losing gladiator should be spared, and chose the winner in the rare event of a standing tie. As munera grew larger and more popular, open spaces such as the Forum Romanum were adapted (as the Forum Boarium had been) as venues in Rome and elsewhere, with temporary, elevated seating for the patron and high status spectators; they were popular but not truly public events: A show of gladiators was to be exhibited before the people in the market-place, and most of the magistrates erected scaffolds round about, with an intention of letting them for advantage. Video of a show fight at the Roman Villa Borg, Germany, in 2011 (Retiarius vs. Secutor, Thraex vs. Murmillo). [204], A man who knows how to conquer in war is a man who knows how to arrange a banquet and put on a show. [9], Livy places the first Roman gladiator games (264 BC) in the early stage of Rome's First Punic War, against Carthage, when Decimus Junius Brutus Scaeva had three gladiator pairs fight to the death in Rome's "cattle market" forum (Forum Boarium) to honor his dead father, Brutus Pera. [151] They could ascend through a hierarchy of grades (singular: palus) in which primus palus was the highest. Earlier periods provide only occasional, perhaps exceptional examples. These stigmata may have been text – slaves were sometimes thus marked on the forehead until Constantine banned the use of facial stigmata in 325 AD. [122] A "good death" redeemed the gladiator from the dishonourable weakness and passivity of defeat, and provided a noble example to those who watched:[123], For death, when it stands near us, gives even to inexperienced men the courage not to seek to avoid the inevitable. The Paestum frescoes may represent the continuation of a much older tradition, acquired or inherited from Greek colonists of the 8th century BC. [210] In 107 BC, the Marian Reforms established the Roman army as a professional body. [153], Those condemned ad ludum were probably branded or marked with a tattoo (stigma, plural stigmata) on the face, legs and/or hands. [62] Most depictions of gladiators show the most common and popular types. Few gladiators survived more than 10 contests, though one survived an extraordinary 150 bouts;[138] and another died at 90 years of age, presumably long after retirement. A gladiator (Latin: gladiator, "swordsman", from gladius, "sword") was an armed combatant who entertained audiences in the Roman Republic and Roman Empire in violent confrontations with other gladiators, wild animals, and condemned criminals. [140] Marcus Junkelmann disputes Ville's calculation for average age at death; the majority would have received no headstone, and would have died early in their careers, at 18–25 years of age. Rome's military success produced a supply of soldier-prisoners who were redistributed for use in State mines or amphitheatres and for sale on the open market. Legislation of 177 AD by Marcus Aurelius did little to stop it, and was completely ignored by his son, Commodus.[44]. In this, the populace thought he had acted the part of a man; but he much disobliged the tribunes his colleagues, who regarded it as a piece of violent and presumptuous interference. [19] The next recorded munus, held for the funeral of Publius Licinius in 183 BC, was more extravagant. [113] In the earliest munera, death was considered a righteous penalty for defeat; later, those who fought well might be granted remission at the whim of the crowd or the editor. [41] Throughout the empire, the greatest and most celebrated games would now be identified with the state-sponsored imperial cult, which furthered public recognition, respect and approval for the emperor's divine numen, his laws, and his agents. His motives are unknown, but his voluntary and "shameless" arena appearance combined the "womanly attire" of a lowly retiarius tunicatus, adorned with golden ribbons, with the apex headdress that marked him out as a priest of Mars. Some monuments record the gladiator's career in some detail, including the number of appearances, victories  —  sometimes represented by an engraved crown or wreath  —  defeats, career duration, and age at death. Later games were held by an editor, either identical with the munerator or an official employed by him. The Arena (also known as the Naked Warriors) is a 1974 gladiator exploitation film, starring Margaret Markov and Pam Grier, and directed by Steve Carver and an uncredited Joe D'Amato. [212], In AD 69, the Year of the Four Emperors, Otho's troops at Bedriacum included 2000 gladiators. Other highlighted features could include details of venationes, executions, music and any luxuries to be provided for the spectators, such as an awning against the sun, water sprinklers, food, drink, sweets and occasionally "door prizes". Steel is what they fall in love with. Doom killed me, not the liar Pinnas. . Their training as gladiators would give them opportunity to redeem their honour in the munus. [206] As a soldier committed his life (voluntarily, at least in theory) to the greater cause of Rome's victory, he was not expected to survive defeat.[207]. Filmen blev en succes både blandt kritikerne og kommercielt og vandt en lang række priser. "[219] Death could be rightly meted out as punishment, or met with equanimity in peace or war, as a gift of fate; but when inflicted as entertainment, with no underlying moral or religious purpose, it could only pollute and demean those who witnessed it. It was inaugurated by Titus in 80 AD as the personal gift of the Emperor to the people of Rome, paid for by the imperial share of booty after the Jewish Revolt.[194]. Many schools and amphitheatres were sited at or near military barracks, and some provincial army units owned gladiator troupes. Claudius Thallus set up this memorial from what I left behind as a legacy. Inspired by the success of Spartacus, there were a number of Italian peplums that emphasized the gladiatorial arena fights in their plots, with it becoming almost a peplum subgenre in itself; One group of supermen known as "The Ten Gladiators" appeared in a trilogy, all three films starring Dan Vadis in the lead role. Box office - le film numero-uno in 2000 (USA), Premio Golden Globe pro le belle film - Drama, https://ia.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gladiator_(film_de_2000)&oldid=622540, licentia Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike. Some include the gladiator's type, in words or direct representation: for example, the memorial of a retiarius at Verona included an engraved trident and sword. [96], The gladiators may have held informal warm-up matches, using blunted or dummy weapons – some munera, however, may have used blunted weapons throughout. [17] Ten years later, Scipio Africanus gave a commemorative munus in Iberia for his father and uncle, casualties in the Punic Wars. [18], For the poor, and for non-citizens, enrollment in a gladiator school offered a trade, regular food, housing of sorts and a fighting chance of fame and fortune. In the early imperial era, munera in Pompeii and neighbouring towns were dispersed from March through November. [73] A munus of 89 AD, during Domitian's reign, featured a battle between female gladiators, described as "Amazons". [21], The enthusiastic adoption of gladiatoria munera by Rome's Iberian allies shows how easily, and how early, the culture of the gladiator munus permeated places far from Rome itself. Their contract (auctoramentum) stipulated how often they were to perform, their fighting style and earnings. ", "Gladiator (Ancient History Encyclopedia)", https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gladiator&oldid=990840995, 3rd-century BC establishments in the Roman Republic, 430s disestablishments in the Roman Empire, Short description is different from Wikidata, Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages, Articles with unsourced statements from June 2020, Articles needing additional references from December 2017, All articles needing additional references, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, This page was last edited on 26 November 2020, at 20:21. "hurtful ones"). [63] The best – the most robust – were sent to Rome. [98] These were the highlight of the day, and were as inventive, varied and novel as the editor could afford. [167] By the 1st century BC, noxii were being condemned to the beasts (damnati ad bestias) in the arena, with almost no chance of survival, or were made to kill each other. This portraiture of gladiators has been the highest interest in art for many centuries now, but it was Gaius Terentius who began the practice of having pictures made of gladiatorial shows and exhibited in public; in honour of his grandfather who had adopted him he provided thirty pairs of Gladiators in the Forum for three consecutive days, and exhibited a picture of the matches in the Grove of Diana.[232]. Other groups and tribes would join the cast list as Roman territories expanded. Advarsel! [171] Some of these highly trained and experienced specialists may have had no other practical choice open to them. [148] If this was granted, the school's physician assessed their suitability. [149], All prospective gladiators, whether volunteer or condemned, were bound to service by a sacred oath (sacramentum). As most ordinarii at games were from the same school, this kept potential opponents separate and safe from each other until the lawful munus. Of the 176 days reserved for spectacles of various kinds, 102 were for theatrical shows, 64 for chariot races and just 10 in December for gladiator games and venationes. Under Augustus' rule, the demand for gladiators began to exceed supply, and matches sine missione were officially banned; an economical, pragmatic development that happened to match popular notions of "natural justice". Grier and Markov portray female gladiators in ancient Rome, who have been enslaved and must fight for their freedom. "Gladiator" could be (and was) used as an insult throughout the Roman period, and "Samnite" doubled the insult, despite the popularity of the Samnite type. They can be immediately differentiated from the competing Hollywood product by their use of dubbing. Only the Vestal virgins were assigned a place to themselves, opposite the praetor's tribunal. Thus demoralised was Capua. [169] Those judged less harshly might be condemned ad ludum venatorium or ad gladiatorium – combat with animals or gladiators – and armed as thought appropriate. Two wall graffiti in Pompeii describe Celadus the Thraex as "the sigh of the girls" and "the glory of the girls" – which may or may not have been Celadus' own wishful thinking.[226]. The film won Best Picture at the 73rd Academy Awards. The account notes, uncomfortably, the bloodless human sacrifices performed to help turn the tide of the war in Rome's favour. Books of fiction in which Roman gladiators play the main or an important supporting role. [190], The earliest known Roman amphitheatre was built at Pompeii by Sullan colonists, around 70 BC. [197] By the devotio of a voluntary oath, a slave might achieve the quality of a Roman (Romanitas), become the embodiment of true virtus (manliness, or manly virtue), and paradoxically, be granted missio while remaining a slave. [110], A match was won by the gladiator who overcame his opponent, or killed him outright. But nobody obeying these orders of his, he gathered together a body of labourers, who worked for him, and overthrew all the scaffolds the very night before the contest was to take place. Payment for such appearances compounded their infamia. [142], The earliest named gladiator school (singular: ludus; plural: ludi) is that of Aurelius Scaurus at Capua. Having "neither hope nor illusions", the gladiator could transcend his own debased nature, and disempower death itself by meeting it face to face. It applied from highest to lowest alike in the chain of command. Referees were usually retired gladiators whose decisions, judgement and discretion were, for the most part, respected;[106] they could stop bouts entirely, or pause them to allow the combatants rest, refreshment and a rub-down. I hovedrollerne ses Russell Crowe og Joaquin Phoenix med Connie Nielsen i en større birolle. Gladiator is a 2000 British-American epic historical drama film directed by Ridley Scott, and starring Russell Crowe and Joaquin Phoenix. In Juvenal's account, he seems to have relished the scandalous self-display, applause and the disgrace he inflicted on his more sturdy opponent by repeatedly skipping away from the confrontation.[185][186]. [230][231] The Gladiator Mosaic in the Galleria Borghese displays several gladiator types, and the Bignor Roman Villa mosaic from Provincial Britain shows Cupids as gladiators. [221] Caesar's 46 BC ludi were mere entertainment for political gain, a waste of lives and of money that would have been better doled out to his legionary veterans. [158][159] Gladiators were sometimes called hordearii (eaters of barley). Their instruments are a long straight trumpet (tubicen), a large curved horn (Cornu) and a water organ (hydraulis). Juvenal describes the segregation of gladiators according to type and status, suggestive of rigid hierarchies within the schools: "even the lowest scum of the arena observe this rule; even in prison they're separate". For he, following the example of no previous general, with teachers summoned from the gladiatorial training school of C. Aurelus Scaurus, implanted in the legions a more sophisticated method of avoiding and dealing a blow and mixed bravery with skill and skill back again with virtue so that skill became stronger by bravery's passion and passion became more wary with the knowledge of this art. [163] A rescript of Hadrian reminded magistrates that "those sentenced to the sword" (execution) should be despatched immediately "or at least within the year", and those sentenced to the ludi should not be discharged before five years, or three years if granted manumission. [155] Discipline could be extreme, even lethal. Armatures could be very costly – some were flamboyantly decorated with exotic feathers, jewels and precious metals. [121], A gladiator who was refused missio was despatched by his opponent. "[105], Trained gladiators were expected to observe professional rules of combat. [101] This yielded two combats for the cost of three gladiators, rather than four; such contests were prolonged, and in some cases, more bloody. Modern pathological examination confirms the probably fatal use of a mallet on some, but not all the gladiator skulls found in a gladiators' cemetery. [216][217] Yet, Cicero could also refer to his popularist opponent Clodius, publicly and scathingly, as a bustuarius – literally, a "funeral-man", implying that Clodius has shown the moral temperament of the lowest sort of gladiator. Many, if not most, involved venationes, and in the later empire some may have been only that. Seneca's "vital spot" seems to have meant the neck. The event may also have been used to drum up more publicity for the imminent game. Faced with runaway re-enlistment fees for skilled auctorati, Marcus Aurelius set their upper limit at 12,000 sesterces. The contract between editor and his lanista could include compensation for unexpected deaths;[114] this could be "some fifty times higher than the lease price" of the gladiator.[115]. According to Cassius Dio, the emperor Caracalla gave the gladiator Bato a magnificent memorial and State funeral;[103] more typical are the simple gladiator tombs of the Eastern Roman Empire, whose brief inscriptions include the following: "The familia set this up in memory of Saturnilos." Tiberius offered several retired gladiators 100,000 sesterces each to return to the arena. [12], The war in Samnium, immediately afterwards, was attended with equal danger and an equally glorious conclusion. Romans considered barley inferior to wheat — a punishment for legionaries replaced their wheat ration with it — but it was thought to strengthen the body. On another occasion, he decapitated a running ostrich with a specially designed dart, carried the bloodied head and his sword over to the Senatorial seats and gesticulated as though they were next. Most gladiators were armed and armoured in the manner of the enemies of Rome. [24], The military were great aficionados of the games, and supervised the schools. The Samnite, heavily armed, elegantly helmed and probably the most popular type,[citation needed] was renamed secutor and the Gaul renamed murmillo, once these former enemies had been conquered then absorbed into Rome's Empire. [43] The cost of gladiators and munera continued to spiral out of control. According to Theodoret, the ban was in consequence of Saint Telemachus' martyrdom by spectators at a munus. [170], Among the most admired and skilled auctorati were those who, having been granted manumission, volunteered to fight in the arena. Comodo sente un profunde rabia ante iste situation e facera totes lo que es in su manos pro destruer Maximo. For the crowd, amphitheatres afforded unique opportunities for free expression and free speech (theatralis licentia). What hooked her? [195][196][197] Amphitheatres also provided a means of social control. [136], "I, Victor, left-handed, lie here, but my homeland was in Thessalonica. For that reason we forbid those people to be gladiators who by reason of some criminal act were accustomed to deserve this condition and sentence. His gravestone in Sicily includes his record: "Flamma, secutor, lived 30 years, fought 34 times, won 21 times, fought to a draw 9 times, defeated 4 times, a Syrian by nationality. The Arena (also known as the Naked Warriors) is a 1974 gladiator exploitation film, starring Margaret Markov and Pam Grier, and directed by Steve Carver and an uncredited Joe D'Amato. Part of Galen's medical training was at a gladiator school in Pergamum where he saw (and would later criticise) the training, diet, and long-term health prospects of the gladiators.[161]. Whether victorious or defeated, a gladiator was bound by oath to accept or implement his editor's decision, "the victor being nothing but the instrument of his [editor's] will. [68] Nero gave the gladiator Spiculus property and residence "equal to those of men who had celebrated triumphs. As time passed, these titles and meanings may have merged. So the Romans made use of the splendid armour of their enemies to do honour to their gods; while the Campanians, in consequence of their pride and in hatred of the Samnites, equipped after this fashion the gladiators who furnished them entertainment at their feasts, and bestowed on them the name Samnites. [97] The editor, his representative or an honoured guest would check the weapons (probatio armorum) for the scheduled matches. Toutefois, les Romains s’interrogèrent très tôt sur l’intérêt et la légitimité d’un tel sport-spectacle. [15] The munus became a morally instructive form of historic enactment in which the only honourable option for the gladiator was to fight well, or else die well. The gladiator's oath as cited by Petronius (Satyricon, 117). These soldiers were preferred, as there would be an opportunity of ransoming them when taken prisoners at a lower price.[209]. During the Imperial era, matches advertised as sine missione (without remission from the sentence of death) suggest that missio (the sparing of a defeated gladiator's life) had become common practice. [13], Livy's account skirts the funereal, sacrificial function of early Roman gladiator combats and reflects the later theatrical ethos of the Roman gladiator show: splendidly, exotically armed and armoured barbarians, treacherous and degenerate, are dominated by Roman iron and native courage. La gladiature nécessitait en effet le renoncement aux droits liés à la citoyenneté romaine ; c’est presque une hérésie pour un Romain ! For example, the bareheaded, nimble retiarius ("net-man"), armoured only at the left arm and shoulder, pitted his net, trident and dagger against the more heavily armoured, helmeted Secutor. [111] Flamma was awarded the rudis four times, but chose to remain a gladiator. [26], Gladiatorial games offered their sponsors extravagantly expensive but effective opportunities for self-promotion, and gave their clients and potential voters exciting entertainment at little or no cost to themselves. [103] At the opposite level of the profession, a gladiator reluctant to confront his opponent might be whipped, or goaded with hot irons, until he engaged through sheer desperation. [116] At a Pompeian match between chariot-fighters, Publius Ostorius, with previous 51 wins to his credit, was granted missio after losing to Scylax, with 26 victories. The games finally declined during the early 5th century after the adoption of Christianity as state church of the Roman Empire in 380, although beast hunts (venationes) continued into the 6th century. Gladiator fights have been depicted in a number of peplum films (also known as "sword-and-sandal" movies). [132] George Ville, using evidence from 1st century gladiator headstones, calculated an average age at death of 27, and mortality "among all who entered the arena" at 19/100. The earliest types of gladiator were named after Rome's enemies of that time: the Samnite, Thracian and Gaul. Throughout the Roman world, ceramics, lamps, gems and jewellery, mosaics, reliefs, wall paintings and statuary offer evidence, sometimes the best evidence, of the clothing, props, equipment, names, events, prevalence and rules of gladiatorial combat. In 165 BC, at least one munus was held during April's Megalesia. [45] The crisis of the 3rd century imposed increasing military demands on the imperial purse, from which the Roman Empire never quite recovered, and lesser magistrates found the obligatory munera an increasingly unrewarding tax on the doubtful privileges of office. Another, dressed as Mercury, tests for life-signs with a heated "wand"; once confirmed as dead, the body is dragged from the arena. [152] Lethal weapons were prohibited in the schools – weighted, blunt wooden versions were probably used. ", "Stable Isotope and Trace Element Studies on Gladiators and Contemporary Romans from Ephesus (Turkey, 2nd and 3rd Ct.

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